In “The Handbook of the Indians of California”† published in 1925, the anthropologist Alfred Kroeber declared that the Ohlone people are “extinct as far as all practical purposes are concerned.” noting that only “a few scattered individuals survive.”
Although the anthropologist wouldn’t recant his declaration of extinction until the 1950s, “the damage was done,” said Charlene Nijmeh, the chairman of the Muwekma Ohlone tribe, which is far from extinct.
The Muwekma Ohlone tribe is a descendant of the Ohlone people, who originally lived on 4.3 million acres in the Bay Area. For decades, the Muwerkma have tried to regain the federally recognized status, which they lost in the 1920s. Linguists and archaeologists had suggested that the Ohlone people migrated there 1,500 to 1,000 years ago. But the tribe has long claimed its presence in the region stretches back further.
A study published in March in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences offers new genomic evidence that the Muwekma’s connection to the Bay Area dates back at least 2,000 years. In collaboration with the Muuwekma Ohlone tribe, researchers from several universities extracted DNA from 12 ancient humans buried in the region 2,000 years ago and found biological continuity with DNA collected from modern members of the tribe.
“Validation, finally,” said Monica Arellano, the tribe’s vice-chairman and author of the article. “This adds to all the information we’ve published there, years of collecting and researching to prove who we are.”
Alyssa Bader, an anthropologist at the University of Colorado Boulder who was not involved in the study, praised how the paper included representatives of the tribe as co-authors and brought community involvement to the fore. “It’s recognized as a really essential part of the scientific research method and not something buried in additional information,” said Dr. Bader, adding, “These are all exciting directions for genomic research, including genomic research on indigenous communities and ancestors.”
In 2014, the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission proposed a construction project on an archaeological site where there would likely be human graves. The committee reached out to the Muuwekma Ohlone tribe, the most likely descendants of the ancient people.
The tribe enlisted the Far Western Anthropological Research Group, a cultural resources consultancy, to conduct excavations at the site, which they named Síi Túupentak (Place of the Water Round House Site). Located near the confluence of the Alameda Creek and the Arroyo de la Laguna, Síi Túupentak was a lush place. The village community fished in the creeks and managed nearby forests and grasslands with controlled burning, said Brian Byrd, an archaeologist at Far Western.
Far Western also excavated another ancient site nearby, called Rummey Ta Kuččuwiš Tiprectak (Place of the Lagoon Stream), which was inhabited as far back as 2,500 years ago.
Tribesmen led the excavations of the tombs, which was an emotionally challenging task. “It’s a shame we had to move them,” said Ms. Arellano. “But if someone has to do it, we take that responsibility very seriously and with as much care and love as possible.” The burials were most likely prepared for people of high descent, as many were buried with precious shells, such as abalone pendants, Ms Arellano said.
Occasionally, when burials were discovered, the excavators would gather under a large tree and talk through the process to make sure everyone was heard, according to Dr. byrd. “Trust is often not the first step for archeology and indigenous communities today,” he said.
Muwekma Ohlone’s tribal council wanted to know if the burials at the sites could help prove their people’s ancient presence in the Bay Area, said Alan Leventhal, the tribe’s archaeologist and a professor emeritus at San Jose State University.
Ripan Malhi, an anthropologist at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Noah Rosenberg, a population geneticist at Stanford University, joined the project to lead the ancient DNA analysis. The researchers submitted all additional tests to the tribal council for approval. The council gave the researchers permission to study plaque for signs of inhalation such as tobacco, and to conduct tests to determine the sex of the buried children, said Dr. byrd. “We were able to identify a few samples from ancestors that were really well preserved,” said Dr. malhi.
After extracting DNA at the two sites from 12 individuals who lived between several hundred and 1,900 years ago, the researchers compared their genomes with publicly available genetic information about other indigenous communities in the Americas and ancient individuals worldwide. The oldest and most recent burials shared distinctive combinations of genetic variants, suggesting they came from related groups.
The analysis identified a shared ancestry component that linked people at the two ancient sites to modern members of the Muweekma. This lineage can be found in other modern communities, but is much larger in the Muwekma.
“It was surprising to find this level of continuity, given the many disturbances the Ohlone people experienced during the Spanish occupation, such as forced displacements and mixing with other tribes forcibly displaced by the Spanish,” said Dr. Rosenberg.
In accordance with the principles of indigenous data sovereignty, the Muwekma will review requests for genomic data collected from the sites and tribesmen, while retaining control over how the data is used. “It minimizes potential harm to communities,” said Dr. Bather. “This is important.”
For members of the Muweekma Ohlone tribe, these genetic results represent a new line of evidence that ties into their tribe’s oral histories. “That’s pretty much our story, we have to prove who we are,” said Ms. Arellano. “We knew who we are, we know who we are, and we’re still here.”
The Muwekma can trace their ancestry through several missions in the Bay Area and lived in small settlements called rancherias until the early 1900s, Mr. Leventhal said.
The tribe was once federally recognized under another name, the Verona Band of Alameda County. But it lost recognition after 1927, when a Sacramento inspector determined that the Muwekma and more than 100 other tribal gangs had no need for land, ending formal federal recognition of the tribe, Mr. Leventhal said. “The tribe has never been terminated by any act of Congress,” he added.
The Muwekma hope the new study and any further research will strengthen their advocacy for federal recognition. “The cost of living is pushing us out,” said Ms Nijmeh, the tribe’s president. “Recognition means we can have a land base and a community village and our people can stay in their rightful place on our land.”
Síi Túupentak will soon open an interpretive center featuring some of the artifacts from the dig, informative signage about the history of the tribal language, and a replica of an eagle, an allusion to Muweekma’s creation story.
But the ancient people who were once buried in Síi Túupentak will be reburied elsewhere, as close as possible to their original graves, Ms Arellano said.
“That was supposed to be their final resting place,” she said. “They were never allowed to be moved.”